Steel, an iron alloy with varying carbon content, is a cornerstone in construction and manufacturing. Its composition, including elements like manganese, nickel, chromium, and, in some cases, a significant chromium content (as in stainless steel), dictates its properties like strength, corrosion resistance, and ductility. Steel is manufactured using iron ore, coke, and limestone. Steel’s use in construction is extensive, from the structural framework, including I-beams and channels, to roofing and interior applications. Steel prices vary based on grade and market conditions, ranging from $500-800 (€468-749, £407-652) per metric ton. Steel is known for its high strength, energy efficiency, and favorable strength-to-weight ratio. Its fire and water resistance contribute to its safety and longevity in construction. Sustainability, technological integration, design flexibility, and aesthetic potential are the future trends in steel used in architecture. Regular maintenance, including inspections and protective coatings, is essential for steel’s longevity. Steel is highly recyclable and upcyclable, making it a sustainable choice. Architects favor steel for its strength, flexibility, speed of construction, aesthetic potential, and sustainability. Steel’s role in modern architecture is pivotal, offering innovative structural designs, prefabrication efficiency, expressive architectural forms, and sustainable building solutions. Steel is commonly found in appliances, cutlery, furniture, plumbing fixtures, structural components, and roofing. Modern architecture often employs materials like glass, steel, concrete, and natural stone for their aesthetic, functional, and sustainable properties. Steel is a popular material in luxury buildings due to its strength, elegance, and green credentials. Steel is considered green due to its high recyclability, energy-efficient production, and adaptability, supporting sustainable and circular building practices.
What is steel?
Steel is an alloy, a mixture of iron and other elements. The base metal is iron, which provides strength. Steel also contains between 0.02% to 2.14% carbon by weight. The amount of carbon present directly affects the quality of the finished steel product. Too little carbon leaves the steel quite soft and weak, while too much carbon makes the steel brittle. Steel contains mainly iron and carbon, other elements are often added to provide additional useful properties. These other alloying elements include manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and boron. Stainless steel contains a minimum of 10.5% chromium. The chromium helps this type of steel resist corrosion, rust, and staining. Structural steels often contain small amounts of nickel, copper, niobium, and vanadium to provide extra strength. Tool steels have lots of tungsten and molybdenum added to allow the steel to withstand high pressures and temperatures.
Steel is a popular modern building material because it combines strength, formability, durability, and cost-effectiveness. Steel’s high tensile strength makes it ideal for use in tall buildings, bridges, pipelines, railroad tracks, cars, ships, machinery, and appliances. It can be readily bent, shaped, welded, galvanized, and plated during fabrication and manufacturing. The microstructure of steel can take different forms called allotropes. Thousands of different types and grades of steel are available on the market today. Metallurgists can create steels optimized for applications ranging from the ultra-high-strength steels used in advanced aerospace components to the simple mild steels employed in automobile body panels.
How is steel created?
There are several ways steel is created. Firstly, iron ore, coke, and limestone are obtained as the main raw materials. Iron ore contains iron combined with oxygen in mineral compounds such as hematite, magnetite, goethite, limonite, or siderite. Coke is a coal residue heated to remove impurities and produce almost pure carbon. Secondly, these raw materials are crushed, cleaned, and blended in proper proportions before being loaded into the top of a blast furnace. As hot air is blown into the bottom of the furnace, the coke is ignited and burns intensely. This produces carbon monoxide gas that reacts with the iron ore, extracting pure iron by removing the oxygen. Thirdly, the products are drained from the bottom of the furnace. Molten iron collects in the bottom while floating slag is drained off separately. Alloying agents like manganese, nickel, chromium, or vanadium may be added to produce steel instead of plain iron. Then, the molten metal is poured into molds or fed through rollers to produce slabs, blooms, billets, or narrow strips. Fourthly, primary steelmaking uses a basic oxygen furnace to lower the carbon content of the iron while also adding back desired alloying elements. A lance blows high-purity oxygen onto the molten iron, triggering reactions that remove carbon as carbon monoxide bubbles. Fifthly, the refined steel goes through secondary steelmaking, which involves even more precise adjustment of the composition and temperature before casting. Vacuum degassing removes hydrogen and nitrogen while alloying additions produce the exact steel grade required by the customer. Lastly, the steel is solidified into semi-finished forms or directly cast into finished shapes like bars, wires, plates, sheets, rails, beams, rods, tubes, bolts, and pipes. Reheating and hot rolling processes may further shape the steel into other products later.
In which part of the building is steel used?
There are several parts of the building where steel is used. Firstly, steel is extensively used in the foundation and structural framework of buildings. Steel I-beams, channels, angles, rebars, and sheet piles provide tall buildings’ underlying supports and skeleton. High-strength structural steel makes constructing skyscrapers with large open interior spaces impossible with concrete or wood frames. Secondly, many modern buildings use steel for exterior and interior walls. Curtain walls utilizing steel studs faced with glass or other exterior cladding materials enclose buildings in an outer skin. Steel siding, paneling, and metal lath provide additional wall surfacing choices. Thirdly, steel finds application in the roof system, from rafters and trusses down to the fasteners, flashing, and gutters. Coated steel roofing comes in shingles, shakes, standing seams, and corrugated panels. Fourthly, steel is found throughout the infrastructure of buildings. Steel pipes supply water and gas, while steel electrical conduit routes wiring. Heating and cooling ducts are fabricated from galvanized steel sheets. Steel fire escapes, and ladders provide additional egress routes alongside steel stairs, railings, and doors. Lastly, a wide variety of steel hardware is integrated into building construction. Hinges, locks, knobs, pulls, and kick plates for doors and cabinets utilize steel for its combination of strength and ease of machining. Steel brings unrivaled performance characteristics vital to creating safe, comfortable, resilient buildings to house human activities.
What is the typical price of steel?
The price of steel can vary greatly depending on the grade, form, and market conditions. Hot rolled steel coil or sheet typically sells for $500-800 per metric ton (€468-749, £407-652), while cold rolled coil or sheet goes for $600-900 per metric ton (€561-841, £488-733). Structural steel shapes like I-beams and channels are priced around $700-1,000 per metric ton (€654-936, £570-813). Specialties like stainless steel are more expensive at $2,000-4,000 per metric ton (€1,872-3,744, £1,628-3,255). On the low end, steel scrap sells for $100-400 per metric ton (€94-374, £81-325). Standard carbon steel for construction or manufacturing purposes currently sells for $0.50 to $1.00 per pound (€0.47 to €0.94, £0.41 to £0.81) depending on the specifics. Steel prices fluctuate frequently based on market conditions.
How is steel sold?
Steel is commonly sold to construction firms and manufacturers through standardized structural shapes, plates, bars, sheets, and coils. Mills produce these basic steel products distributed through steel service centers and metal suppliers. Structural steel shapes include wide-flange beam channels and angle sections for building frames. These come in standard lengths with common dimension sizes to facilitate easy joining. Plates are flat pieces of steel cut to specified lengths and thicknesses as needed. Bars are long steel sections that can be further fabricated. Sheets are thin steel coils sliced to width and sold in flat pieces. The steel distribution network allows customers to purchase a range of products conveniently without minimum order quantities. This supports small-scale buyers like metal fabricators. Large customers, like construction firms, rely on distributors to procure steel on demand quickly. Online metals websites have further eased purchasing. Mills mostly produce commodity-grade carbon steel. Value-added processes applied by distributors produce higher grades like stainless steel or prepare custom fabrications. This broadens the types and forms of steel available to end users. Distributors also offer services like precision cutting, forming, welding, and finishing steel products before delivery.
What is the availability of steel?
Steel is widely available and readily accessible to construction firms and manufacturers globally. Annual steel production exceeds 1.8 billion metric tons, with over 50% used in buildings and infrastructure construction. Developing countries are also rapidly expanding steel output. This high volume ensures a plentiful steel supply chain. Standard structural steel shapes and plates in common sizes are mass-produced by mills and stocked by distributors, allowing for easy procurement without minimum order quantities. Online metals websites further improve availability. The versatility of steel facilitates shaping it into whatever structural forms are needed for creative building designs or adapting old structures to new uses. This morphological flexibility makes steel highly available for varied applications. Steel can be transported efficiently over long distances thanks to compact bundles of rolled steel and stacking of some products. Steel framing can be pre-fabricated off-site in a controlled setting and rapidly erected on-site, accelerating projects.
What is the durability of steel?
Steel is an extremely durable building material due to its high strength, corrosion resistance, and dimensional stability. Steel has a tensile strength of 58,000-80,000 psi (400-550 MPa), allowing it to resist bending and breaking under stress. This high strength makes steel ideal for bridges, high-rise buildings, and structures that require durability under heavy loads. Steel is resistant to corrosion due to its chromium content, which allows it to form a protective oxide layer when exposed to air and moisture. Common structural steel grades like A36 can withstand maximum temperatures of 1,300-1,400 °F (700-750 °C) before losing significant strength. Specialty alloys like 310 stainless steel can handle even higher temperatures exceeding 1,800 °F (1,000 °C). This high-temperature resistance adds to steel’s durability advantages. Steel structures can last well over 100 years with routine maintenance and proper corrosion protection. Iconic steel structures like the Eiffel Tower (1887) and Golden Gate Bridge (1937) remain strong despite over a century of use.
What is the strength of steel?
Steel has extremely high strength compared to other building materials, with a typical tensile strength of 58,000-80,000 psi (400-550 mPA). This allows steel to resist very heavy loads without failing. Steel can span long distances between supports due to its high strength-to-weight ratio, allowing more open and flexible floor plans than concrete or masonry. The high strength of steel comes from its chemical composition of iron alloyed with small amounts of carbon and other elements. This gives steel a very rigid crystalline structure at the atomic level, allowing it to resist being pulled apart under tension. Steel’s strength increases as it is rolled or pressed into structural shapes during manufacturing. Steel reinforcing bars are often cast into concrete to resist the tension forces concrete cannot handle alone. Steel’s high tensile strength and ductility balance make it an ideal primary building material for structural frames.
What is the energy efficiency of steel?
Steel is an extremely energy-efficient building material due to its strength, durability, and recyclability. Pound for pound, steel requires significantly less energy than other common building materials like concrete or aluminum. Over the past 50 years, advances in steel manufacturing have reduced the energy needed to produce a ton of steel by 60%, from 20 million BTUs per ton in the 1960s to around 7 million. Steel building components like wall panels and metal roofs also provide excellent insulation. Metal roofing can reduce heat gain by up to 30% compared to other roof types. Steel framing with rigid foam insulation sandwiches achieves very high R-values exceeding R-30. This high level of insulation reduces the energy consumption needed for heating and cooling. Steel’s dimensional stability also ensures building insulation performance remains consistent over the structure’s lifetime.
What is the weight of steel?
Steel is a versatile building material of iron and carbon valued for its strength, durability, and relatively low cost. The weight of steel can vary depending on factors like the specific alloy blend and intended application, but a general figure for structural steel is around 490 pounds (222 kilograms) per cubic foot. Steel’s high strength-to-weight ratio in comparison to other building materials like concrete, 150 pounds (68 kilograms) per cubic foot, or wood, typically 30-40 pounds (14-18 kilograms) per cubic foot for construction lumber, means that less steel by volume is required to provide equal load-bearing capacity. Structural steel plates certified to meet ASTM A36 standards used broadly in construction will typically have a density between 40.8-50 pounds (18-22 kilograms) at a thickness ranging from 0.13–1 inches (3.2–2.5 centimeters). On the lighter end, sheet steels like hot-rolled ASTM A569 steel average 49 (22 kilograms) pounds per square foot, and cold-rolled ASTM A1008 steels used for elements like decking and siding are approximately 43 pounds (19 kilograms) per square foot. An average cubic yard of structural steel weighs around 13,500–15,000 pounds (6,120-6,804 kilograms). Since steel is priced per pound, firms must carefully calculate potential waste and profitable usage. The weight and density characteristics also inform best practices for storage to prevent bending or overloading.
What is the fire resistance of steel?
Steel has excellent fire resistance compared to other building materials due to its high melting point, low thermal conductivity, and noncombustible properties. Structural steel typically has fire resistance ratings from 1-4 hours when properly insulated with spray-on materials like concrete, gypsum, or intumescent coatings. These passive fire protection layers act as thermal barriers to prevent steel from reaching critical temperatures where strength loss occurs. During standard fire tests, unprotected steel can withstand temperatures of 1,000-1,100 °F (538-593 °C) for short periods before losing about half its strength. Stainless steel grades 310 and 330 maintain strength exceeding 1,500 °F (815 °C), while Inconel alloys remain strong beyond 2,000 °F (1,093 °C). Steel buildings can withstand extreme fires without structural failure with the right steel choice and insulation. The historical survival of steel landmarks like the Eiffel Tower proves that steel offers unmatched fire resistance for buildings spanning decades or centuries.
What is the water resistance of steel?
Steel has good inherent water resistance due to the protective chromium oxide layer that forms on its surface when exposed to air. This passive layer resists corrosion and prevents oxygen from reaching the underlying steel. Stainless steel grades offer vastly improved water and corrosion resistance compared to regular carbon steel. Stainless steels contain at least 10.5% chromium, encouraging the formation of this protective oxide layer. Nickel and molybdenum further enhanced corrosion resistance, especially in chloride-containing waters, which can cause pitting. Common austenitic stainless steels like grade 304 provide excellent resistance for most freshwater applications. Higher alloy variants like 904L and 254SMO can withstand corrosive seawater environments. Building applications like doors and window frames, design, and installation also impact water resistance. Adequate overhangs and sealants prevent water intrusion into the wall cavity. Frames should be removed from the exterior wall face by at least one brick width to limit direct water exposure. Weep holes at the bottom of the frame allow drainage. Steel frames can achieve suitable water resistance through material corrosion resistance and weather barrier design.
What are the acoustic properties of steel?
Steel has relatively poor inherent sound insulation properties compared to concrete or masonry due to its thinner profile and lack of mass. Steel is highly rigid and transmits structure-borne vibration efficiently from one part of a building to another. Sandwich panels with internal sound-absorbing cores help dampen this vibration transmission through walls and floors. The key is separating the rigid steel components using acoustically rated resilient channels and isolation clips. This decouples the steel frame from finish layers, allowing movable joints that reduce noise flanking. Typical sound transmission class (STC) ratings for double-layer steel stud walls with absorption-filled cavities range from STC 45-60. Floors with floating concrete on metal decks can achieve STC 50 or higher.
What is the flexibility and adaptability of steel?
Steel is valued in construction for its strength, but it also provides advantageous flexibility and adaptability. The wide array of steel types and forms allows architects, engineers, and builders flexibility in design to meet aesthetic goals while satisfying structural needs. Steel’s ductility enables reshaping and forming during initial production and onsite fabrication. Compared to concrete, which must be cast and cured in final form, steel can be bent, cut, welded, and adjusted in response to evolving plans or field conditions. This supports more dynamic, innovative designs.
Standard hot-rolled structural steel shapes like W beams, channels, and angles provide flexibility by offering the ability to bolt, weld, or join members on-site per design requirements. Steel columns spacing at 30 feet (9 meters) can be interconnected with girders and joists to create open floor plans suitable for modern offices. Cold-formed steel studs at common widths like 3.5 inches (89 millimeters) allow easy load-bearing and partition walls to be constructed easily. These standardized members can meet high structural tolerance requirements, with .004 inch (.1 millimeter) straightness, allowing close-fit connections. The versatility of available forms like circular and rectangular steel tubing contributes to adaptable space planning while meeting lighting, wiring, and HVAC needs. Steel can even be hot worked and welded in place as temporary support, then removed by torch cutting if demands evolve. This facilitates responsiveness and flexibility at all stages of construction.
What are the future trends in design with steel?
Several future trends in design with steel. Firstly, sustainability is becoming an increasingly prominent concern in design, and steel is no exception. These initiatives aim to reduce the carbon footprint of steel structures, making them more environmentally friendly. Secondly, integrating advanced technologies will revolutionize the design and construction processes involving steel. From parametric modeling to 3D printing, digital tools will enable architects and engineers to create complex and efficient steel structures with precision and speed. Thirdly, flexibility in design is set to be a key trend. Steel’s inherent strength and adaptability will continue to inspire architects to push the boundaries of what can be achieved. Lastly, steel’s aesthetic potential will continue to evolve. Architectural trends are moving towards a fusion of steel with other materials such as wood, glass, and concrete, resulting in visually stunning and harmonious designs. These trends reflect our society’s evolving needs and aspirations, pushing the boundaries of what is achievable with this versatile building material.
How is maintenance and longevity secured in steel?
Maintenance and longevity of steel can be ensured through proper inspection, cleaning, maintenance, and repairs coupled with protective coatings, conscientious usage, and high build quality. Firstly, regular inspections and cleaning are vital. Steel buildings should be inspected at least twice yearly to check for any signs of corrosion, damage, loose fittings or fasteners, and debris buildup. Any issues found can then be promptly addressed. Secondly, protective coatings like paint and galvanizing help shield the steel. Quality weather-resistant paints create a protective barrier. Hot-dip galvanizing coats the steel in a layer of zinc, with the zinc sacrificing itself to prevent the base steel from rusting. Thirdly, addressing any minor damage right away prevents further deterioration. Scratches or chips in paint or protective coatings allow moisture to direct contact with steel, initiating corrosion and rust. Spot repairs reseal the steel surface. Any damaged or loose structural components should also be fixed or replaced immediately. Fourthly, the surrounding environment and usage impact longevity. Steel structures in highly corrosive coastal areas or exposed to extreme weather require extra protection and more frequent maintenance. Sustainable and energy-efficient design further reduces strain on the structure. Lastly, high-quality design, construction, and materials boost durability. Utilizing the proper steel grades and types for an application allows it to withstand applied stresses better. Higher initial quality directly translates to longer service life. Steel still requires proper care to achieve its full lifespan potential.
Can steel be recycled and upcycled?
Yes, steel is one of the most sustainable and eco-friendly building materials available today. It is 100% recyclable and can be recycled repeatedly without losing strength or quality. This makes it ideal for upcycling – turning waste materials into products of higher quality and value. The recycling process for steel is simple. Using magnets, steel can be easily separated from other materials at construction and demolition sites. Recycled steel makes up about 40% of global steel production. In the US, over 90% of steel from construction projects is recycled. Recycled steel retains all the same performance characteristics and strength as newly produced steel. Over the past 30 years, recycling has helped the steel industry reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 36%. Steel lends itself well to upcycling, too. Entire steel buildings can be reused by making upgrades and improvements. Steel shipping containers are increasingly upcycled into stunning architecture around the world. These practices give new life and purpose to what would otherwise become waste.
Why do architects prefer steel, and in what techniques?
Architects prefer steel as a building material for several key reasons. Firstly, architects prefer steel for its exceptional strength, allowing the construction of tall buildings and long spans that are not feasible with other materials. Secondly, steel offers unmatched versatility and customizability to architects. It can be rolled or fabricated into limitless shapes. Thirdly, the speed of construction with prefabricated steel components enables faster project completion. This cuts overall construction schedules significantly compared to stick-built methods. Fourthly, exposed architectural steel directly expresses structural form and function in a building through the skeletal steel frame. The interplay between the structure and building envelope creates an aesthetic style that could be achievable with concrete or timber. Lastly, sustainability is enhanced with lightweight steel construction, minimizing material usage. Steel is the most recycled material globally. This resonates with architects aiming to reduce environmental impact. It also enables faster, greener construction along with dynamic exposed structural expression.
How is steel used in modern architecture?
Steel is used in modern architecture in several ways. Firstly, steel enables innovative structural designs that are not feasible with other materials, like long spans, daring cantilevers, and thin, open floor plans. Steel grants new heights and forms to buildings. Secondly, steel offers speed and efficiency in construction, allowing faster project completion. Most structural steelwork is prefabricated offsite into modular pieces for rapid onsite assembly. This also reduces material waste. Thirdly, exposed architectural steel directly expresses a building’s structural system through the skeletal steel frame rather than concealing it behind other finishes. Lastly, steel enables sustainable and resilient building design. As the most recycled material globally, steel is an eco-friendly building material. Steel possesses a blend of properties suited to address today’s building challenges. It is why steel is indispensable as architecture’s most versatile building block.
What are the most famous products made of steel found in houses?
Listed below are the most famous products made of steel found in houses:
- Stainless Steel Kitchen Appliances: Stainless steel is widely used in kitchen appliances such as refrigerators, ovens, dishwashers, and microwaves due to its durability and corrosion resistance. These appliances are favored for their ability to resist rust and staining, making them ideal for the moist environment of a kitchen. Many high-end kitchen appliances are made of stainless steel, not only for its functional benefits but also for its contribution to a kitchen’s design and feel.
- Steel Cutlery and Cookware: Steel is a popular material for cutlery, pots, and pans. Stainless steel cutlery is valued for its strength, resistance to corrosion and tarnishing, and ease of maintenance. Stainless steel cookware is known for its excellent heat conduction and distribution, making it a preferred choice for professionals and home cooks. These products are long-lasting and maintain their appearance over time, essential for frequently used and washed items.
- Steel Furniture: Steel is a common material in furniture construction, particularly items like bed frames, chairs, and tables. Steel furniture often features a modern, minimalistic design and can be combined with other materials like wood and glass to create aesthetically pleasing pieces.
- Steel Plumbing Fixtures: Steel is frequently used in faucets, sinks, and showerheads. The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is particularly important in plumbing, where fixtures are constantly exposed to water. Steel plumbing fixtures offer durability and aesthetic appeal, with various finishes matching interior designs. These fixtures are also easy to clean and maintain, contributing to their popularity in modern homes.
- Steel Door and Window Frames: Steel is a popular choice for door and window frames in homes due to its strength and durability. Steel frames provide enhanced security and can withstand extreme weather conditions better than other materials. They also offer a high degree of design flexibility, allowing for the creation of large, uninterrupted glass surfaces for a modern and open aesthetic.
- Steel Structural Components: Steel is a primary material for structural components such as beams, joists, and columns. The strength and flexibility of steel allow for innovative architectural designs, including open floor plans and large, unsupported spans. Steel’s high strength-to-weight ratio makes it ideal for supporting heavy loads, and its resistance to pests, fire, and rot contributes to the overall durability and safety of the structure.
- Steel Roofing: Steel roofing is known for its durability, longevity, and resistance to extreme weather conditions. It is often used in both residential and commercial buildings. Steel roofs can be designed in various styles and colors, making them versatile for different architectural styles. They are also energy-efficient, reflecting sunlight and helping to reduce cooling costs.
What materials do architects prefer in modern house buildings?
There are four primary materials that architects prefer in modern house buildings. Firstly, architects frequently incorporate glass into modern-style homes for its transparency, ability to maximize natural light, and seamless integration with the surrounding environment. Glass allows for expansive views, creating a sense of openness and connection to the outdoors. It promotes energy efficiency by reducing the need for artificial lighting during the day. Secondly, steel is favored in modern-style homes due to its strength, versatility, and clean lines. Steel structures provide the opportunity for large, open spaces and expansive windows, contributing to the modern aesthetic. Its durability allows for long-span designs and the incorporation of unique architectural features. Thirdly, concrete is a popular material choice for modern-style homes due to its versatility, durability, and minimalist appearance. It offers the ability to create sleek, monolithic forms and provides excellent thermal mass, aiding energy efficiency. Concrete can be molded into various shapes, allowing architects to experiment with innovative designs. Lastly, architects often incorporate natural stone into modern-style homes for its timeless elegance and connection to nature. Stone materials, such as granite, marble, or limestone, provide a sense of luxury and sophistication. They can be used as cladding, flooring, or accent features, adding texture and visual interest to the design.
Is steel an elegant material to use in luxury buildings?
Yes, steel offers many benefits that make it well-suited for luxury buildings. Its strength makes steel structures incredibly slender and lightweight and has column-free interiors, creating a sense of openness and space. Steel can also be formed into graceful curves and tapered profiles that lend an air of sophistication. It has a high recycled content, sometimes over 90%, significantly reducing carbon emissions. Steel buildings are also adaptable to reuse and can be fully recycled at the end of life without losing material quality. These green credentials align with luxury values. Designers use stainless steel for stunning accent walls, fireplaces, kitchen backsplashes, and more to add visual interest. Steel can be given different surface finishes like polishing or powder coating to fit the desired styles.
Is steel considered a “green” material?
Yes, steel can be considered a “green” and sustainable building material. Steel has high recycled content. On average, new steel contains 93% recycled scrap, significantly reducing the need for virgin materials. Steel production has become more energy and carbon-efficient. Innovations in steelmaking using electric arc furnaces have reduced the industry’s energy use by 32% and greenhouse gas emissions by 37% since 1990. Steel is 100% recyclable and reusable without quality loss. This supports circular lifecycles where steel from demolished buildings and infrastructure gets recycled into new steel products. Steel enables the adaptation and reuse of buildings. Entire steel structures can be dismantled, upgraded, and reconstructed in new locations. Steel shipping containers also find second lives as architecture.
